Research & Evidence

IES Practice Guide: Foundational Skills for Reading, 2016; National Reading Panel, 2000

Systematic, explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension aligned to the science of reading. Instruction follows a scope and sequence that moves from simple to complex letter-sound correspondences. Strongest effects are observed for K-3 students and struggling readers, with lasting benefits when combined with decodable texts and cumulative review.

National Reading Panel, 2000; Ehri et al., 2001 Meta-Analysis

Explicit teaching of letter-sound relationships in a clearly defined, logical sequence. Students learn to decode words by blending sounds and to encode words through segmentation. The NRP meta-analysis of 38 studies found significant effects on decoding, spelling, and comprehension for beginning readers. Effects are particularly strong for at-risk students and students with reading disabilities.

Nickow, Oreopoulos & Quan, 2020 (NBER Working Paper 27476)

One-on-one or small-group tutoring sessions delivered three or more times per week by trained tutors during the school day. The NBER meta-analysis of 96 randomized controlled trials found that high-dosage tutoring produces among the largest effect sizes of any educational intervention. Effects are strongest when sessions are embedded in the school day and delivered by well-trained paraprofessionals or certified teachers.

Mol et al., 2008 Meta-Analysis; What Works Clearinghouse

Interactive shared reading technique where adults use prompts (completion, recall, open-ended, wh-questions, distancing) to encourage children to become active storytellers rather than passive listeners. The meta-analysis across 16 studies found strong effects on expressive vocabulary and oral language development, particularly for children from low-income backgrounds in preschool and early elementary settings.

Klingner & Vaughn, 1998; IES What Works Clearinghouse

Peer-mediated comprehension strategy instruction that combines four strategies: Preview (activating prior knowledge), Click & Clunk (monitoring comprehension), Get the Gist (identifying main ideas), and Wrap Up (generating questions and reviewing). Students work in cooperative groups with defined roles. Research shows consistent benefits for English learners and students with learning disabilities.

IES Practice Guide: Improving Reading Comprehension in K-3, 2010; Murphy et al., 2009

Students engage in structured analysis of complex texts through repeated reading, annotation, and text-dependent questioning. Teachers guide students to cite evidence, analyze author purpose, and build interpretations collaboratively. The IES practice guide rates this approach with strong evidence for improving comprehension and critical thinking, particularly when combined with explicit vocabulary instruction.

Bowers, Kirby & Deacon, 2010 Meta-Analysis

Explicit instruction in the meaningful parts of words including prefixes, suffixes, roots, and base words. Students learn to analyze word structure to decode unfamiliar words and infer meaning. The meta-analysis of 22 studies found significant effects on vocabulary, reading comprehension, and spelling. Benefits are especially strong for older students reading multisyllabic academic vocabulary.

Graham & Harris, 2003; Graham et al., 2012 Meta-Analysis

Six-stage instructional model teaching students cognitive and metacognitive strategies for planning, drafting, and revising text. The writing-reading connection strengthens comprehension as students internalize text structures. The meta-analysis found very large effects on writing quality and moderate effects on reading comprehension, with strongest gains for students with learning disabilities.

IES Practice Guide: Improving Reading Fluency, 2009; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003

Structured repeated reading, partner reading, and wide reading with explicit modeling of prosody and phrasing. Teachers model fluent reading, students practice with feedback, and progress is monitored through oral reading fluency assessments. Research shows that fluency instruction bridges decoding and comprehension, with greatest impact when combined with comprehension strategy instruction.

IES Practice Guide: Improving Adolescent Literacy, 2008; Scammacca et al., 2007

Comprehensive programs for secondary students that integrate vocabulary instruction, reading comprehension strategies, motivation supports, and content-area literacy. The IES practice guide recommends providing explicit vocabulary, comprehension strategy instruction, and opportunities for extended discussion of text meaning. Programs are most effective when implemented with fidelity across content areas.

What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report, 2017; Ransford-Kaldon et al., 2010

Small-group supplemental literacy intervention using leveled books with explicit instruction in phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Lessons follow a structured format with reading, writing, and phonics/word study components. The WWC found positive effects on alphabetics and general reading achievement for struggling readers when delivered with fidelity by trained teachers or interventionists.

IES Practice Guide: Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to ELs, 2014; Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2013

Intensive instruction on high-utility academic vocabulary words (Tier 2) that appear frequently across content areas. Students receive multiple exposures through definitions, context sentences, semantic mapping, and active use in speaking and writing. The IES practice guide recommends teaching a set of words intensively across several days using varied activities rather than brief dictionary work.

IES Practice Guide: Assisting Students Struggling with Mathematics, 2009; Hattie, 2023

Step-by-step modeling of problem-solving procedures with gradual release to guided and independent practice. The worked-example effect reduces cognitive load by allowing students to study completed solutions before attempting similar problems. Research consistently shows this is among the most effective instructional approaches for building procedural fluency and conceptual understanding.

Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 2023; IES Practice Guide, 2009

Frequent, low-stakes assessment using exit tickets, diagnostic interviews, and mini-quizzes to identify misconceptions and adjust instruction in real time. Teachers use data to form flexible groups and target reteaching. Black and Wiliam's landmark review found that formative assessment raises achievement across subjects, with math showing particularly strong gains when teachers modify instruction within 48 hours.

Witzel, Mercer & Miller, 2003; IES Practice Guide: Teaching Math to Young Learners

Three-phase instructional approach that moves from hands-on manipulatives (concrete) to visual diagrams and models (representational) to symbolic notation (abstract). Each phase builds on the previous, ensuring conceptual understanding before procedural fluency. Research shows CRA is particularly effective for fractions, place value, algebra readiness, and students with mathematics difficulties.

Nickow, Oreopoulos & Quan, 2020 (NBER); Kraft, 2020

Intensive, frequent tutoring in math delivered three or more sessions per week during the school day by trained tutors. The NBER meta-analysis found that in-school tutoring by paraprofessionals is nearly as effective as tutoring by certified teachers when tutors receive ongoing training and use structured curricula. Programs have demonstrated 1-2 additional years of math learning in a single school year for high school students.

Slavin & Lake, 2008 Meta-Analysis; Hattie, 2023

Structured small-group work where students collaborate to solve problems, explain reasoning, and build on each other's ideas. Effective cooperative learning requires individual accountability, positive interdependence, and explicit instruction in group skills. The Slavin & Lake review of 33 rigorous studies found cooperative learning consistently outperformed individual instruction across grade levels.

IES Practice Guide: Teaching Strategies for Improving Algebra Knowledge, 2015

Systematic use of number lines, bar models, area models, tape diagrams, and other visual representations to develop conceptual understanding before symbolic procedures. The IES practice guide recommends interleaving visual and symbolic approaches so students can translate between representations. Singapore Math's model-drawing approach exemplifies this practice with demonstrated gains in problem-solving.

Rohrer et al., 2020 (Journal of Educational Psychology); Dunlosky et al., 2013

Distributing practice over time (spacing) and mixing different problem types within assignments (interleaving) rather than massing same-type problems together. Rohrer's RCT with 7th graders found interleaved practice improved test scores by 25 percentage points compared to blocked practice. These strategies strengthen retrieval and discrimination, improving long-term retention and transfer.

IES Practice Guide: Teaching Math to Young Learners, 2013; Baroody, 2006

Daily routines (number talks, math fact games, subitizing activities) that build number relationships and automaticity with basic facts through reasoning strategies rather than rote memorization. The IES practice guide recommends helping children build on informal knowledge and dedicate time daily to building fluency. Students who develop number sense show stronger performance in later mathematics.

Jitendra et al., 2015 Meta-Analysis; IES Practice Guide

Teaching students to identify the underlying mathematical structure (schema) of word problems such as compare, change, group, or equal groups before selecting a solution strategy. Students learn to map story situations onto schematic diagrams. The meta-analysis of 25 studies found very large effects, with students with disabilities showing even larger gains than general education peers.

Cheung & Slavin, 2013 Meta-Analysis; IES What Works Clearinghouse

Adaptive software that adjusts problem difficulty based on student performance, providing immediate feedback and targeted practice. The meta-analysis of 74 studies found modest but consistent effects, with strongest gains when technology supplements rather than replaces teacher instruction. Effective programs provide immediate corrective feedback and adjust pacing to individual learners.

IES Practice Guide: Teaching Strategies for Improving Algebra Knowledge, 2015; Blanton et al., 2015

Early introduction of algebraic concepts such as equality, variables, functional relationships, and generalization starting in elementary grades. The IES practice guide recommends using solved problems to engage students in analyzing algebraic reasoning and teaching students to use multiple representations. Research shows that students with early exposure to algebraic thinking perform significantly better in formal algebra courses.

CA ELA/ELD Framework, 2014; IES Practice Guide: Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to ELs, 2014

A dedicated daily ELD block focused on English language forms and functions (designated ELD), combined with scaffolded access to grade-level academic content throughout the day (integrated ELD). The California ELA/ELD Framework provides a research-based model where designated ELD targets language at students' proficiency level while integrated ELD ensures access to rigorous content.

Umansky & Reardon, 2014; Thomas & Collier, 2012; Steele et al., 2017

Instruction delivered in both English and the home language, with the goal of bilingualism and biliteracy. Longitudinal research by Thomas and Collier shows dual-language students outperform English-only peers by middle school in both languages and across academic subjects. Steele's RCT in Portland found significant gains in English reading with no cost to other subjects.

Goldenberg, 2013; IES Practice Guide for ELs; Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007

Explicit teaching of academic vocabulary, sentence frames, paragraph structures, and discipline-specific discourse patterns across all content areas. Scaffolding strategies include graphic organizers, anchor charts, sentence starters, and structured collaborative conversations. Research consistently shows that academic language must be taught explicitly for ELs to master the language demands of grade-level content.

IES Practice Guide: Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to ELs, 2014; August et al., 2005

Intensive, multi-faceted vocabulary instruction that includes multiple encounters with words in context, cognate instruction, word-learning strategies using morphology and context clues, and opportunities to use new vocabulary in speaking and writing. The IES practice guide recommends teaching a set of academic vocabulary words intensively across several days using a variety of activities.

Goldenberg & Coleman, 2010; IES What Works Clearinghouse

English-medium instruction with strategic use of the primary language for clarification, cognate bridging, preview-review, and building background knowledge. Teachers use sheltering techniques to make English input comprehensible while maintaining grade-level rigor. Research shows that strategic primary language support accelerates English acquisition rather than delaying it.

Calderon, Slavin & Sanchez, 2011; IES Practice Guide for ELs

Structured peer interaction using protocols like Think-Pair-Share, Numbered Heads Together, and Reciprocal Teaching that provide English learners with repeated, low-stakes opportunities to produce academic language. The IES practice guide recommends pairing ELs with English-proficient peers for structured collaborative activities that increase language output and reduce affective barriers.

Short & Boyson, 2012 (Center for Applied Linguistics); Sugarman, 2017

Specialized programs for recently arrived immigrant students (typically 0-2 years in the US) that provide intensive English development, cultural orientation, social-emotional support, and accelerated academic catch-up. Programs typically last 1-2 years before students transition to mainstream settings. Effective practices include native language literacy development, content-based ESL, and mentoring.

Olsen, 2010; Thompson, 2015; CA Dept. of Education LTEL Task Force

Targeted interventions for Long-Term English Learners (LTELs) who have been EL-classified for 6+ years, including specialized courses, literacy acceleration, and identity-affirming practices. Olsen's research identified distinct instructional needs of LTELs compared to newcomers: strong oral English but weak academic literacy. Effective programs combine accelerated literacy instruction with student agency.

Paris & Alim, 2017; Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 1995

Instructional approaches that leverage students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds as assets for learning, including culturally relevant texts, translanguaging practices, and connections between home and school literacies. Research shows that students who see their identities affirmed in the classroom demonstrate higher engagement, stronger academic identity, and better learning outcomes across content areas.

McMaster et al., 2008; Saenz, Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005; WWC Intervention Report on PALS

Structured peer tutoring programs where English learners are paired with English-proficient partners for reading and language practice using scripted activities. The PALS model includes partner reading, paragraph shrinking, and prediction relay. Research shows significant gains in reading fluency and comprehension for ELs when sessions occur 3 times per week for 35 minutes with trained student partners.

Balfanz, 2016; Attendance Works; Johns Hopkins Everyone Graduates Center

Data dashboards that flag students showing early warning signs (2+ absences per month, declining grades, behavioral referrals) for immediate, tiered intervention. Schools using EWS with structured response protocols reduce chronic absenteeism by 15-25% within one year. The ABC framework (Attendance, Behavior, Course performance) provides a validated set of indicators.

DuBois et al., 2011 Meta-Analysis (73 studies)

Consistent, structured one-on-one relationships between a caring adult and a student meeting weekly for 30+ minutes. The meta-analysis found that mentoring improves attendance, behavioral, social-emotional, and academic outcomes. Effects are strongest when mentoring occurs during the school day, mentors receive training plus ongoing supervision, and the relationship lasts at least one full school year.

Attendance Works; CA Department of Education, 2023; Rogers & Feller, 2018

Collaborative approach pairing personalized family outreach with barrier removal addressing transportation, health access, housing stability, and school climate concerns. Shifts from punitive responses to supportive, relationship-based strategies. Rogers and Feller's RCT found personalized mail outreach alone reduced chronic absence by 10%, and combined with case management, effects doubled.

RAND Corporation, 2020; Maier et al., 2017 (Learning Policy Institute)

Schools serve as community hubs providing integrated academic, health, social services, and enrichment through partnerships with local organizations. The RAND evaluation of NYC Community Schools found improvements in attendance, credit accumulation, and on-time graduation. Four pillars include integrated student supports, expanded learning time, family/community engagement, and collaborative leadership.

Robinson et al., 2018 (Journal of Policy Analysis and Management)

Programs that recognize and celebrate improved and consistent attendance through certificates, events, small rewards, and public acknowledgment. Robinson's RCT found that award assemblies and recognition letters reduced absences. Most effective when combined with root-cause analysis and barrier removal rather than used in isolation. Programs should recognize improvement, not just perfect attendance.

Knopf et al., 2016 (Journal of Adolescent Health); Guo et al., 2010

On-site health clinics, vision/dental screening, mental health counseling, and chronic disease management that address health-related barriers to attendance. Research shows school-based health centers reduce emergency room visits and health-related absences, with strongest effects for students with asthma, dental problems, or unmanaged chronic conditions.

IES Practice Guide: Preventing Dropout in Secondary Schools, 2017; Kennelly & Monrad, 2007

Structured supports during critical transition years (5th to 6th, 8th to 9th) including summer bridge programs, peer buddy systems, orientation events, and first-year advisory periods. The 9th grade transition is the highest-risk period for dropout. Research shows that students who fail more than one course in 9th grade are significantly less likely to graduate.

Rogers & Feller, 2018 (RCT, 28,000 students); Smythe-Leistico & Page, 2018

Low-cost, behaviorally informed communications sent to families using personalized letters, text messages, and postcards that provide factual information about attendance, reference social norms, and connect to supports. Rogers and Feller's large RCT demonstrated that a single personalized mailing reduced chronic absence by 10% at approximately $7 per student, making this one of the most cost-effective interventions.

What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report, 2015; Sinclair et al., 2005

Structured mentoring intervention where trained monitors track student engagement indicators (attendance, behavior, academics), build trusting relationships, and provide personalized interventions. The "Check" component involves systematic monitoring of alterable indicators. The "Connect" component provides individualized, timely support. The WWC found positive effects on staying in school for students with disabilities.

IES Practice Guide: Using Extended Time Strategies, 2012; Kidron & Lindsay, 2014

Programs that increase instructional time through longer school days, after-school programs, or summer learning to address opportunity gaps and build engagement. The IES practice guide recommends using additional time for academic instruction, enrichment, and relationship-building. Research shows effects are strongest when extra time is well-structured, includes enrichment activities, and targets students with the greatest needs.

Durlak et al., 2011 Meta-Analysis (213 studies, 270,000+ students)

Structured programs teaching the five CASEL competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. Durlak's landmark meta-analysis found an average 11-percentile-point gain in academic achievement, improved social behaviors, and reduced conduct problems. Effects were strongest when programs were sequenced, active, focused, and explicit (SAFE criteria).

WestEd, 2019; RAND Corporation, 2022; Augustine et al., 2018

Community-building circles, restorative conferences, and peer mediation to build relationships and address harm through dialogue rather than punishment. RAND's evaluation in Pittsburgh Public Schools found a 46% reduction in suspensions and fewer arrests, though effects on academic outcomes required multi-year implementation. Most effective when implemented schoolwide with consistent staff training.

Zenner et al., 2014 Meta-Analysis (24 studies)

Brief daily exercises (5-15 minutes) including focused breathing, body scans, mindful listening, and compassion practices. The Zenner meta-analysis found significant effects on cognitive performance, stress reduction, and emotional resilience. Effects on attention and self-regulation were strongest. Programs are most effective when teachers practice mindfulness themselves and sessions are integrated into daily routines.

Horner et al., 2010; OSEP Technical Assistance Center on PBIS

Three-tiered framework for defining, teaching, and reinforcing expected behaviors across all school settings. Tier 1 establishes schoolwide expectations with explicit teaching and positive reinforcement. Tiers 2 and 3 provide increasingly intensive behavioral supports. Research shows reductions of 20-60% in office discipline referrals and improved perceptions of school safety and belonging.

January et al., 2011 Meta-Analysis; Cook et al., 2008

Small-group instruction teaching specific social skills (conflict resolution, assertiveness, empathy, cooperation) to students who need targeted support beyond universal SEL. Sessions typically run 30-45 minutes, 2-3 times per week for 8-12 weeks. The meta-analysis found moderate effects on social behavior and peer relationships, with strongest effects when skills are modeled, practiced, and reinforced in natural settings.

Jaycox et al., 2012; SAMHSA National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs

Structured 10-session group intervention for students exposed to traumatic events, delivered by school mental health professionals. Addresses PTSD symptoms, depression, and behavioral problems through psychoeducation, relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and gradual exposure. CBITS is one of the most rigorously studied school-based trauma interventions with demonstrated effects across diverse populations.

Hawken et al., 2007; Campbell & Anderson, 2011 Meta-Analysis

Tier 2 intervention where students check in with a mentor each morning to review behavioral goals and check out at end of day to receive feedback on a daily behavior report card. Data is tracked and shared with families. The structured adult contact provides consistent positive attention and goal-setting for students who need more support than universal PBIS alone.

Yeager et al., 2019 (Nature, National Study of Learning Mindsets)

Brief, scalable interventions teaching students that intellectual ability is not fixed but can be developed through effort and effective strategies. The Yeager national study of 12,000+ 9th graders found that a brief online intervention improved grades for lower-achieving students and increased enrollment in advanced math. Effects are strongest in schools with supportive peer norms.

CASEL Assessment Guide, 2019; McKown, 2019 (Applied Developmental Science)

Systematic assessment of social-emotional competencies using validated surveys to measure self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and decision-making. Data is used to inform SEL programming, identify students needing targeted support, and evaluate program effectiveness. Research shows that districts using SEL data to drive continuous improvement see stronger program outcomes than those implementing without measurement.

Ttofi & Farrington, 2011 Meta-Analysis (89 studies)

Comprehensive programs combining universal prevention education, targeted intervention for involved students, clear reporting procedures, and consistent schoolwide policies. The meta-analysis found an average 20-23% reduction in bullying perpetration and 17-20% reduction in victimization. Effective programs include playground supervision, classroom rules, parent involvement, and individual work with bullies and victims.

National School Climate Center; Thapa et al., 2013 (Review of Educational Research)

Validated annual surveys measuring safety, relationships, teaching and learning, and institutional environment from the perspectives of students, staff, and families. Thapa's review identified school climate as a significant predictor of academic achievement, graduation rates, and teacher retention. Most effective when results are disaggregated by subgroup and shared transparently with the school community.

SAMHSA, 2014; Cole et al., 2013 (Helping Traumatized Children Learn); WestEd

Schoolwide approach built on six principles: safety, trustworthiness, peer support, collaboration, empowerment, and cultural responsiveness. Staff receive training in recognizing trauma responses, using de-escalation techniques, and creating predictable, safe environments. Schools implementing comprehensive trauma-informed approaches report 30-50% reductions in disciplinary incidents and improved student engagement.

Quaglia Institute for School Voice and Aspirations; Mitra, 2004

Structured, authentic opportunities for students to provide input on school policies, co-design learning experiences, lead campus initiatives, and serve on governance committees. Research shows students who believe their voice matters are significantly more academically motivated. Effective programs include representative advisory boards, participatory action research, and student-led improvement projects.

Hattie, 2023; Roorda et al., 2011 Meta-Analysis

Intentional strategies for building positive, supportive relationships between teachers and students including the 2x10 strategy (2 minutes of personal conversation for 10 consecutive days), interest inventories, greeting students by name, and positive home contacts. Roorda's meta-analysis found teacher-student relationships are among the most powerful predictors of engagement, with stronger effects for younger students.

Paris & Alim, 2017; Hammond, 2015 (Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain)

School practices that sustain cultural and linguistic competencies of students' communities while offering access to dominant cultural norms. Includes culturally relevant curriculum, multilingual signage, culturally affirming discipline practices, and representation in school materials. Hammond's framework shows that cultural responsiveness activates the brain's attention and engagement systems, directly supporting learning.

Losen, 2015 (UCLA Civil Rights Project); Morgan et al., 2014

Comprehensive approach replacing zero-tolerance policies with tiered discipline systems that use alternatives to exclusionary discipline including restorative conversations, conflict resolution, in-school alternatives, and root-cause analysis. Research documents that exclusionary discipline disproportionately affects Black, Latino, and disabled students without improving safety. Effective reform pairs policy with bias awareness training.

Walton & Cohen, 2011 (Science); Yeager et al., 2016

Brief, psychologically precise interventions that address students' worries about belonging in academic settings by normalizing challenges during transitions and reframing adversity as temporary. Walton and Cohen's landmark study found that a one-hour belonging intervention in college halved the Black-white GPA gap over four years. K-12 adaptations show promise for transition years.

Ingersoll, 2012; Kraft et al., 2016; RAND Corporation, 2022

Comprehensive programs addressing teacher and staff well-being through manageable workloads, collegial support structures, mentoring for new teachers, competitive compensation, and wellness resources. Research shows that organizational conditions, not student demographics, are the primary drivers of teacher turnover. Strong school climate and supportive leadership are the most powerful predictors of retention.

Cornell, 2018 (Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines); Nekvasil & Cornell, 2015

Systematic protocols for evaluating student threats of violence to distinguish serious substantive threats from transient expressions of frustration. The Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines have been evaluated in multiple studies showing reduced suspensions, fewer long-term disciplinary actions, and maintained school safety. Teams include administrators, counselors, law enforcement, and mental health professionals.

CDC, 2009 (School Connectedness: Strategies); Resnick et al., 1997; Blum, 2005

Comprehensive efforts to strengthen students' sense of belonging and connection to school through positive adult relationships, engaging instruction, physical and emotional safety, and meaningful participation. CDC research identifies school connectedness as a powerful protective factor against violence, substance use, and early sexual activity. Strategies include advisory periods, extracurricular participation, and creating small learning communities.

Mapp & Bergman, 2021; US Department of Education

Systemic approach that simultaneously builds the capacity of families to support their children's learning AND the capacity of school staff to engage families effectively. Grounded in relational trust, linked to learning, culturally responsive, and designed for sustainability. The framework shifts from compliance-based activities to capacity-building partnerships that improve outcomes for all students.

Parent-Teacher Home Visits (PTHVP); Harvard Family Research Project; Sheldon & Jung, 2015

Voluntary, relationship-focused home visits by trained educators designed to build trust, share student strengths, and identify family hopes and dreams for their children. The PTHVP model emphasizes visits as acts of respect (not surveillance) conducted by pairs of educators. Schools report improved attendance, parent-teacher trust, and academic outcomes, with strongest effects for historically underserved families.

Henderson & Mapp, 2002; CA Family Engagement Framework, 2017

Interactive, hands-on workshops where families learn research-based strategies to support learning at home such as shared reading techniques, math games, and homework support. Most effective when offered in families' home languages, provided at accessible times, include food/childcare, and directly connect to what students are learning in class. Should be designed with family input, not just for families.

Kraft & Rogers, 2015; Bergman, 2021 (RCT)

Proactive, positive, multilingual communication between teachers and families through text, app, phone, and in-person channels. Kraft and Rogers' RCT found proactive teacher-family communication improved student engagement and course passing rates. Bergman's study showed automated text messages about missing assignments reduced course failures by 38%. Two-way communication is more effective than one-way information pushes.

Ishimaru, 2019; Henderson et al., 2007

Programs that develop family members' capacity to serve as advocates, leaders, and decision-makers in their children's education and school governance. Moves beyond volunteerism and event attendance to authentic shared power and influence. Research shows schools with strong family leadership have better school climate, more equitable policies, and improved outcomes for historically marginalized communities.

Barton et al., 2004; Mapp & Kuttner, 2013

Engagement practices that honor diverse cultural assets, communication styles, and definitions of involvement. Recognizes that families engage in education in many ways beyond attending school events, including storytelling, community cultural practices, and home-based learning. Effective approaches center families' funds of knowledge and avoid deficit-based assumptions.

Paredes, 2011; WestEd Evaluation, 2016

Data-driven, team-based approach replacing traditional parent-teacher conferences with collaborative sessions where parents learn their child's academic data, set 60-day goals with teachers, and practice instructional activities to do at home. WestEd evaluations show increased parent efficacy, more home learning activities, and improved student achievement in reading and math.

IES Practice Guide: Preventing Dropout, 2017; Epstein, 2011

Targeted family engagement during high-risk transition periods (PreK to K, elementary to middle, middle to high school). Includes family orientation events, bridge programs with family components, ongoing communication about new expectations, and parent peer support groups. Research shows family involvement drops sharply at each transition and proactive engagement significantly reduces academic decline.

Anderson-Butcher et al., 2010; Coalition for Community Schools, 2017

Strategic partnerships between schools and community organizations to provide wraparound services addressing non-academic barriers to learning such as healthcare, mental health, nutrition, housing support, and legal services. Research shows that coordinated services models improve attendance, reduce behavioral incidents, and support academic achievement particularly for students from high-poverty backgrounds.

Warschauer & Tate, 2018; US Department of Education, 2017

Programs providing families with devices, internet connectivity, and digital literacy training so they can engage with school communication platforms, monitor student progress, and support learning at home. Research shows the digital divide disproportionately affects low-income families and families of color. Effective programs combine device provision with ongoing training and technical support in families' home languages.

Bernstein et al., 2010; IES What Works Clearinghouse; Watt et al., 2008

College readiness system that provides academic support through WICOR strategies (Writing, Inquiry, Collaboration, Organization, Reading), elective courses with study skills instruction, and a college-going culture. AVID targets students in the academic middle. Multiple evaluations show increased enrollment in rigorous courses, higher GPA, improved college enrollment rates, and higher four-year college graduation rates compared to matched peers.

What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report, 2017; Berger et al., 2013 (NCPR)

Programs enabling high school students to enroll in and earn credit for college courses while still in high school. The WWC reviewed rigorous studies and found positive effects on degree attainment and college enrollment. Early College High Schools, where students can earn an associate degree or up to two years of college credit alongside a high school diploma, show the strongest effects for first-generation and low-income students.

Dougherty, 2018; Kreisman & Stange, 2020; IES What Works Clearinghouse

Structured sequences of courses integrating academic and technical content aligned to industry sectors and leading to industry-recognized credentials or certifications. Research shows CTE students have higher graduation rates and earnings, particularly when pathways include work-based learning, industry mentors, and articulation with postsecondary programs. Effects are strongest for career pathways with strong labor market demand.

Alfeld et al., 2013; Linked Learning Alliance, 2019; National Academy Foundation

Structured workplace experiences connecting classroom learning to authentic career contexts through job shadowing, mentoring, internships, and apprenticeships. The National Academy Foundation reports that students completing internships are more likely to graduate, attend college, and earn higher wages. Most effective when integrated with academic coursework, supported by employer partnerships, and accompanied by structured reflection.

Hoxby & Turner, 2015; Bettinger et al., 2012; Castleman & Page, 2015

Programs providing students and families with information, mentoring, and hands-on assistance for college selection, application, financial aid (FAFSA completion), and enrollment. Hoxby and Turner's RCT found that providing high-achieving, low-income students with personalized information about college options increased enrollment at matched colleges. Bettinger found that FAFSA completion assistance increased college enrollment by 8 percentage points.

Kolluri, 2018; Ackerman et al., 2013; What Works Clearinghouse

Expanding access to advanced coursework by removing barriers (prerequisites, teacher recommendations), providing preparation supports, and funding exam fees. Research shows that taking AP/IB courses is associated with higher college enrollment and persistence, even when students do not pass the exams. Effects are strongest when coupled with teacher training, study groups, and targeted supports for underrepresented students.

Castleman & Page, 2014; IES Practice Guide: Preventing Dropout, 2017

Structured programs during the summer before major transitions (middle to high school, high school to college) that include academic preparation, campus orientation, relationship building with peers and staff, and social-emotional supports. Castleman and Page found that summer outreach and counseling reduced summer melt (the gap between college intention and enrollment) by 8-12 percentage points.

IES Practice Guide: Preventing Dropout, 2017; Dynarski et al., 2008

Dedicated advisory periods or mentoring programs where a consistent adult helps students set academic and career goals, monitor progress, navigate high school requirements, and prepare for postsecondary transitions. The IES practice guide recommends assigning adult advocates who build personal relationships and monitor student progress. Most effective when advisors have small caseloads and meet with students at least weekly.

Bettinger et al., 2012 (NBER); Hoxby & Turner, 2015; NASFAA Research

Programs integrating financial literacy education with hands-on support for scholarship applications, FAFSA completion, and financial planning for postsecondary education. Bettinger's RCT demonstrated that providing personal assistance with FAFSA completion at tax preparation sites increased college enrollment by 8 percentage points. Programs are most effective when they combine education with direct application support and address family financial concerns.

Betts et al., 2018; CA Dept. of Education; EdTrust West, 2015

Systematic efforts to ensure all students have access to and complete the sequence of courses required for UC/CSU eligibility (A-G requirements in California). Includes master schedule audits, credit recovery programs, early warning systems for D/F grades, and targeted tutoring for gateway courses. Research shows significant disparities in A-G completion by race and income, and districts with intentional A-G supports close these gaps over time.